Are There Still Gandhara Art Sculptures in the World

Artistic syncretism between Classical Hellenic republic and Buddhist India

The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art of the north Indian subcontinent is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism.

The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with Alexander the Great's brief incursion into the area, followed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converting the region to Buddhism.^{[ citation needed ]} Buddhism became the prominent faith in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms. However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under the Kushan Empire, when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries CE.^[1] Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century CE, when most surviving motifs and artworks were produced.^[1]

Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman fine art. It has the potent idealistic realism and sensuous description of Hellenistic art, and it is believed to have produced the first representations of Gautama Buddha in human class, ending the early period of aniconism in Buddhism.^[2]

The representation of the human being form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the south in the residual of India, and to the e, where the spread of Buddhism carried its influence as far as Japan.^[3]

Historical Outline [edit]

The Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100 BC.^{[five] [6] [7]}

There has been disagreement amongst art historians as to whether Gandharan art owes more to the culture established immediately after Alexander'southward campaigns, or to a synthesis several centuries later between travelling Greco-Roman artists from the eastern Roman Empire in regions where Greek settlers were however important. Virtually of the considerable quantity of Gandharan fine art that tin be dated comes from afterwards about fifty Ad, although some conspicuously was created earlier.^[eight] For this reason, some scholars adopt to call this Romano-Indian art,^[nine] or talk of an "Indo-Classical way".^[x]

The French scholar Alfred Foucher first identified the Western influences on Gandharan art at the cease of the 19th century. He was initially a proponent of the continuity betwixt the first Greek settlements and this art, and dated much of the art much earlier than more recent scholars do. Withal, he later on revised his views and datings somewhat. His views equally to dates and the crucial period of Western influence came to be widely rejected, simply then received considerable support by the discovery of the important deserted city site of Ai-Khanoum (Alexandria on the Oxus), which was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s, where quantities of clearly Greek-influenced fine art were found, datable to the 3rd and (generally) 2nd centuries BC.^[11]

Greco-Buddhist fine art originated after a series of cultural exchanges between populations. During the fourth dimension of Alexander the Great's military campaign in the Indian subcontinent and Southern asia, Buddhism was mostly limited to North Eastern India and non common in Northward Western Republic of india, where the Greek satrapies formed. Buddhism was later widespread throughout South and Central Asia by the Maurya Empire. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converted his Greek subjects amongst others to Buddhism as mentioned in his Edicts of Ashoka.^[12]

Here in the king'southward domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are post-obit Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma.

—Ashoka, Rock Edict 13

After the overthrow of the Maurya Empire by the Shunga Empire, which did not extend to the north-western corners of the Mauryan territories, many of the Greek satrapies continued to practice Buddhism and developed the Greco-Buddhist art. This was axiomatic during the reign of the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–130 BC) and the Indo-Greek kingdom (180–ten BC).^[xiii] Under the Indo-Greeks and especially later nether the Kushan Empire, Greco-Buddhist art flourished in the expanse of Gandhara and fifty-fifty spread to Central Asia, affecting the art of the Tarim Basin, as well as permeating once more into India.^[14]

The Yavana (Greek) rex Menander I was given the title of Soter ("Savior"), presumably for his assist of Buddhists that were being persecuted. According to the Milinda Panha, Menander was a devout Buddhist and achieved the title of an arhat, and was cached in a stupa according to the Buddhist fashion. Post-obit the death of Menander, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms disintegrated and their realm was conquered by invading Indo-Scythians or other regional entities. The Indo-Scythians were in turn subjugated by the Kushan Empire equally the Western Satraps and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout about of Central Asia and North Bharat. The Kushan Emperor Kanishka, was as well a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible for spreading Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhist art throughout the Silk Route.

Early Buddhist Art and Aniconic Buddhist Representations [edit]

Buddhist art first became evident and widespread nether the Maurya Empire during the reign of Ashoka the Bang-up.^[xv] Mauryan fine art heavily influenced early Buddhist art and its iconography. This is evident in the art institute throughout the Maurya Empire such as capitals including the Pillars of Ashoka, and stupas such as the Sanchi and Bharhut stupas, which were constructed and start decorated during the Maurya Era. Early Buddhist art, including Mauryan art, depicted various structures and symbols pertaining to dharmic religions which are still used today. Symbols such as the Dharmachakra, lotus, and the Bodhi tree have become common iconography representing Buddhism. Additionally, these Buddhist artforms included diverse mythological beings such equally yakshas including Kubera and yakshini such as Chanda, too as celestial Devas (Suras) and Asuras. Furthermore, Mauryan art specially those found on reliefs throughout stupas, depict the life of the Buddha including his nativity, majestic processions, the Great Departure, enlightenment, and acension from this world.

Interestingly, although these sculptures depict other humans and diverse divinities in anthropomorphic forms, the Buddha is purposefully not shown in a homo representation. Instead, the Buddha is depicted with diverse symbols.^[16] This includes a riderless horse depicting his departure from his kingdom as shown on the Bharhut stupa. A Bodhi tree to depict the Shakyamuni Buddha achieving enlightenment. Every bit well as the Buddha footprints to convey his legacy after moving on from this world. At that place is much debate on why the Buddha was not depicted equally a human unlike other sculptures establish throughout Buddhist art. It is considered that the orthodox Buddhists choose not to stand for the Shakyamuni Buddha out of respect, equally giving him a human class would spring him to this Earth as a living being which contradicts him obtaining his goal of enlightenment and achieving moksha.^[xvi]

Hellenistic art in Southern asia [edit]

Silver coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I (200–180 BC) wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of Bharat. Back: Herakles, belongings a lion peel and a club resting over the arm. The text reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΥ – BASILÉŌS DĒMĒTRÍOU "of King Demetrius".

The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings of the period, such every bit Demetrius I of Bactria. Many coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings have been unearthed, including the largest silver and gilt coins ever minted in the Hellenistic world, ranking amongst the best in creative and technical sophistication: they "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often more bland descriptions of their royal contemporaries further Westward". ("Greece and the Hellenistic world").

These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as in Ai-Khanoum in Bactria, displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic bronze, and remains of Aristotelician papyrus prints and coin hoards.

These Greek elements penetrated India quite early on as shown by the Hellenistic Pataliputra capital^[17] (tertiary century BC) during the Maurya Era, but the influence became especially strong, peculiarly in northwestern India post-obit the invasion of the Greco-Bactrians in 180 BC, with the establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom in India. Architectural styles used Hellenistic decorative motifs such as fruit garland and scrolls. Stone palettes for effluvious oils representing purely Hellenistic themes such as a Nereid riding a Ketos sea monster are constitute.

Early on Gandhara creations: stone palettes (second century BC – 1st century Advertizement) [edit]

The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for their rock palettes, also called "toilet trays", round trays commonly found in the areas of Bactria and Gandhara, which usually stand for Greek mythological scenes. The primeval of them are attributed to the Indo-Greek period in the 2d and 1st century BCE (a few were retrieved from the Indo-Greek stratum No.5 at Sirkap).^{[eighteen] [19]} Production connected until the fourth dimension of the Indo-Parthians, merely they practically disappeared after the 1st century.

Interaction [edit]

As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form the Indo-Greek kingdom, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This artistic trend then adult for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during the Kushan Empire from the 1st century Advertisement.

Early on contributions of Gandharan artists to Buddhist fine art (2nd-1st century BC) [edit]

Co-ordinate to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art at Sanchi and Bharhut.^[twenty] The structure as a whole too every bit various elements signal to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such every bit the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan guild, and the abundant utilise of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif.^[21]

Sanchi [edit]

Effectually 115 BC, the embassy of Heliodorus from king Antialkidas to the court of the Sungas rex Bhagabhadra in Vidisha is recorded. In the Sunga capital, Heliodorus constructed the Heliodorus colonnade in a dedication to Vāsudeva. This would indicate that relations between the Indo-Greeks and the Sungas had improved past that time, that people traveled between the ii realms, and also that the Indo-Greeks readily followed Indian religions.^[22]

Besides around the same time, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such every bit decorative reliefs started to be introduced at nearby Sanchi, 6 km away from Vidisha, by craftsmen from the surface area of Gandhara, a primal Indo-Greek region.^{[23] [24]} Typically, the primeval medallions at Sanchi Stupa No.2 are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar carvings are dated to 80 BC.^[25] These early decorative reliefs were apparently the piece of work of craftsmen from the northwest (around the expanse of Gandhara), since they left mason's marks in Kharoshthi, as opposed to the local Brahmi script.^{[23] [24]} This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa.^{[23] [24]}

Bharhut [edit]

Craftsmen from the Gandhara area, a cardinal region of the Indo-Greek realm, are known to have been involved in the construction of the gateways at Bharhut, which are dated to 100-75 BC:^{[30] [31]} this is because mason's marks in Kharosthi take been constitute on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the northward, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in apply.^{[28] [21] [32]}

Statues on the architraves of the torana gateway, associated with Kharosthi marks. 100-75 BC.

Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were establish on the ballusters between the architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were fabricated by local artists.^[29] The Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC (most probably 75 BC based on artistic analysis).^[30]

The structure every bit a whole likewise every bit diverse elements signal to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan society, and the abundant utilize of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif.^[21]

Characteristics of Greco-Buddhist art [edit]

Creative model [edit]

Later, Greco-Buddhist art depicts the life of the Buddha in a visual manner, probably past incorporating the real-life models and concepts which were bachelor to the artists of the period.

The Bodhisattvas are depicted every bit bare-chested and jewelled Indian princes, and the Buddhas as Greek kings wearing the light toga-like himation. The buildings in which they are depicted comprise Greek style, with the ubiquitous Indo-Corinthian capitals and Greek decorative scrolls. Surrounding deities class a pantheon of Greek (Atlas, Herakles) and Indian gods (Indra).

Material [edit]

Stucco also as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the ornament of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the creative person with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a loftier degree of expressiveness to be given to the sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was pop wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - Republic of india, Transitional islamic state of afghanistan, Central Asia and China.

Stylistic development [edit]

Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started past being extremely fine and realistic, as credible on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the all-time Greek work" (Boardman). It and so lost this sophisticated realism, condign progressively more symbolic and decorative over the centuries.

Architecture [edit]

The Titan Atlas, supporting a Buddhist monument, Hadda.

The presence of stupas at the Greek city of Sirkap, which was built past Demetrius around 180 BC, already indicates a strong syncretism betwixt Hellenism and the Buddhist faith, together with other religions such as Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. The style is Greek, adorned with Corinthian columns in fantabulous Hellenistic execution.

Later on in Hadda, the Greek divinity Atlas is represented property Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the Indian Yaksa in the monuments of the Shunga Empire effectually the 2nd century BC.

Buddha [edit]

Seated Buddha in Hellenistic style, Tapa Shotor, 2nd century AD.^{[33] [34]}

Old between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century Advertizing, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent the Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha epitome immediately reached a very loftier level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece.

The Buddha teaching. Kushan period. National Museum, Delhi. 2004

Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek himation (a light toga-like wavy robe covering both shoulders: Buddhist characters are always represented with a dhoti loincloth before this innovation), the halo, the contrapposto stance of the upright figures, the stylized Mediterranean curly hair and summit-knot apparently derived from the style of the Belvedere Apollo (330 BC), and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with stiff creative realism (Meet: Greek fine art). Some of the continuing Buddhas (as the one pictured) were sculpted using the specific Greek technique of making the easily and sometimes the anxiety in marble to increase the realistic result, and the rest of the torso in another material.

Foucher peculiarly considered Hellenistic gratuitous-standing Buddhas equally "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BC, and making them the starting betoken of the anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101).

Development [edit]

There is some argue regarding the verbal date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from the Indo-Greeks, or was a later development by the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians or the Kushans nether Hellenistic artistic influence. Well-nigh of the early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult to have a definite dating. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate indications on appointment is the Bimaran casket, which has been found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian king Azes Two (or possibly Azes I), indicating a 30–x BC date, although this engagement is not undisputed.

Such datation, every bit well as the full general Hellenistic style and mental attitude of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket (himation dress, contrapposto attitude, full general delineation) would make it a possible Indo-Greek work, used in dedications past Indo-Scythians before long after the end of Indo-Greek rule in the expanse of Gandhara. Since it already displays quite a sophisticated iconography (Brahma and Śakra as attendants, Bodhisattvas) in an avant-garde style, it would advise much earlier representations of the Buddha were already electric current by that time, going back to the rule of the Indo-Greeks (Alfred A. Foucher and others).

The next Greco-Buddhist findings to exist strictly datable are rather tardily, such as the c. AD 120 Kanishka casket and Kanishka's Buddhist coins. These works at least bespeak though that the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha was already extant in the 1st century Ad.

From some other direction, Chinese historical sources and landscape paintings in the Tarim Bowl metropolis of Dunhuang accurately draw the travels of the explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian to Central Asia as far every bit Bactria effectually 130 BC, and the aforementioned murals describe the Emperor Han Wudi (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BC by a peachy Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although there is no other mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals would suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BC, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks.

Afterwards, the Chinese historical chronicle Hou Hanshu describes the research nearly Buddhism fabricated around Ad 67 by the emperor Emperor Ming (Advertisement 58–75). He sent an envoy to the Yuezhi in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date:

"The Emperor, to observe the true doctrine, sent an envoy to Tianzhu (天竺, Northwestern India) (Northwestern Republic of india) to enquire about the Buddha'due south doctrine, after which paintings and statues [of the Buddha] appeared in the Heart Kingdom." (Hou Hanshu, trans. John Colina)

An Indo-Chinese tradition too explains that Nagasena, besides known as Menander'south Buddhist instructor, created in 43 BC in the city of Pataliputra a statue of the Buddha, the Emerald Buddha, which was later brought to Thailand.

Artistic model [edit]

In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god Herakles, continuing with his social club (and after a diamond rod) resting over his arm.^[35] This unusual representation of Herakles is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and information technology is exclusively associated to him (and his son Euthydemus II), seen only on the back of his coins.

Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such every bit Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural surroundings, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes.

Gods and Bodhisattvas [edit]

Deities from the Greek mythological pantheon too tend to exist incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular, Herakles (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation of Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha.^[36] Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation of Atlas, and the Greek wind god Boreas. Atlas in item tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind god Fujin through the Greco-Buddhist Wardo. The female parent deity Hariti was inspired by Tyche.

Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely Bodhisattvas all in a very realistic Greco-Buddhist style. The Bodhisattvas, characteristic of the Mahayana form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories.

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  Winged Atalante.

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  "Laughing boy" from Hadda

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  Caput of a bodhisattva, Gandhara ca. fourth century

Cupids [edit]

Winged cupids are another popular motif in Greco-Buddhist art. They normally wing in pair, holding a wreath, the Greek symbol of victory and kingship, over the Buddha.

These figures, also known equally "apsarases" were extensively adopted in Buddhist fine art, particularly throughout East asia, in forms derivative to the Greco-Buddhist representation. The progressive evolution of the style can exist seen in the art of Qizil and Dunhuang. It is unclear nevertheless if the concept of the flying cupids was brought to India from the West, of if it had an contained Indian origin, although Boardman considers it a Classical contribution: "Another Classical motif we found in Republic of india is the pair of hovering winged figures, mostly chosen apsaras." (Boardman)

Scenes of cupids holding rich garlands, sometimes adorned with fruits, is some other very pop Gandharan motif, directly inspired from Greek fine art. It is sometimes argued that the only concession to Indian fine art appears in the anklets worn by the cupids. These scenes had a very broad influence, equally far as Amaravati on the eastern coast of Republic of india, where the cupids are replaced by yakṣas.

Devotees [edit]

Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into the cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult.

Some groups, frequently described as the "Buner reliefs," usually dated to the 1st century Advertising, depict Greeks in perfect Hellenistic manner, either in posture, rendering, or clothing (wearing the Greek chiton and himation). It is sometimes even hard to perceive an bodily religious message backside the scenes. (The devotee scene on the right might, with doubt, depict of the presentation of Prince Siddharta to his helpmate. It may also just exist a festive scene.)

About a century later, friezes likewise draw Kushan devotees, ordinarily with the Buddha equally the central figure.

Fantastic animals [edit]

Various fantastic brute deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, ofttimes triangular friezes in staircases or in front end of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs tin be found in Greece in the 5th century BC, and after in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in Sirkap. Amid the most popular fantastic animals are tritons, ichthyo-centaurs and ketos sea-monsters. Similar fantastic animals are found in aboriginal Egyptian reliefs, and might therefore take been passed on to Bactria and India independently.

As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring the souls of dead people to Paradise beyond the waters. These motifs were later adopted in Indian art, where they influenced the depiction of the Indian monster makara, Varuna's mountain.

Kushan contribution [edit]

The later part of Greco-Buddhist fine art in northwestern Republic of india is normally associated with the Kushan Empire. The Kushans were nomadic people who started migrating from the Tarim Basin in Central Asia from around 170 BC and concluded up founding an empire in northwestern India from the 2nd century BC. Subsequently conquering the lands in one case inhabited by Greco-Bactrians and Indo-Greeks, the Kushan Empire adopted Greco-Buddhist fine art.

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  Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century Gandhara.

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  Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right. 2nd century Gandhara.

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  Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees.

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  Kushans worshipping the Buddha's basin. 2nd century Gandhara.

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  Kushan devotee couple, around the Buddha, Brahma and Indra.

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  Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century.

Subsequently period (5th-seventh centuries) [edit]

The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara essentially ends with the 5th-7th centuries. A late evolution is the appearance of a halo and mandorla surrounding the Buddha figure.^[37] The terminal stages correspond roughly to the destruction of the Alchon Huns, when the art of Gandhara, becomes essentially extinct. When Xuanzang visited northwestern Bharat in c.  630 Ad, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.^[38]

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  Seated Buddha with halo and mandorla 5th-6th century Gandhara.

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  The Buddha with a radiate mandorla, Gandhara, 6th century

Southern influences [edit]

Art of the Shunga [edit]

Examples of the influence of Hellenistic or Greco-Buddhist art on the art of the Shunga Empire (183-73 BC) are usually faint. The principal religion, at least at the beginning, seems to have been Brahmanic Hinduism, although some late Buddhist realizations in Madhya Pradesh as too known, such as some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, originally started under King Ashoka.

Art of Mathura [edit]

A Bodhisattva, 2d century, Mathura

The representations of the Buddha in Mathura, in central northern India, are generally dated slightly subsequently than those of Gandhara, although not without debate, and are also much less numerous. Upwardly to that betoken, Indian Buddhist art had substantially been aniconic, avoiding representation of the Buddha, except for his symbols, such as the wheel or the Bodhi tree, although some archaic Mathuran sculptural representation of Yaksas (earth divinities) accept been dated to the 1st century BC. Even these Yaksas indicate some Hellenistic influence, perchance dating back to the occupation of Mathura by the Indo-Greeks during the second century BC.

In terms of artistic predispositions for the first representations of the Buddha, Greek fine art provided a very natural and centuries-erstwhile background for an anthropomorphic representation of a divinity, while on the contrary "there was null in earlier Indian statuary to suggest such a treatment of form or dress, and the Hindu pantheon provided no adequate model for an aristocratic and wholly human deity" (Boardman).

Greek ringlet supported past Indian Yaksas, Amaravati, 3rd century AD

The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and fundamental pattern elements such equally the curly pilus, and folded garment. Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reverberate warmer climatic conditions, equally they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to encompass merely one shoulder instead of both. As well, facial types also tend to go more Indianized. Banerjee in Hellenism in aboriginal India describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which nosotros find on the one hand, a directly continuation of the sometime Indian art of Bharhut and Sanchi and on the other hand, the classical influence derived from Gandhara".

The influence of Greek art tin can be felt across Mathura, every bit far as Amaravati on the East coast of India, as shown by the usage of Greek scrolls in combination with Indian deities. Other motifs such as Greek chariots pulled by iv horses can also exist found in the aforementioned expanse.

Incidentally, Hindu art started to develop from the 1st to the 2nd century Advertising and found its beginning inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. Information technology progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements however, in contrast with the general rest and simplicity of Buddhist art.

The fine art of Mathura features frequent sexual imagery. Female images with bare breasts, nude below the waist, displaying labia and female genitalia are common. These images are more sexually explicit than those of earlier or later periods.

Arts of Western India [edit]

A terracotta caput of Buddha Shakyamuni, inspired by Greco-Buddhist art, Devnimori, Gujarat (375-400 AD).

The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of Gandhara, Ajanta Caves, 5th century Advert.^[39]

It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori in Gujarat, dated to the fourth century Advertising, represented a Western Indian creative tradition, based on the influence of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, that was anterior to the rise of Gupta Empire art, and that information technology may have influenced it, and have influenced the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.^[40] Devnimori may besides have received some influence from Mathura art.^[40] At Ajanta, some connections with the fine art of Gandhara tin can exist noted, and there is evidence of a shared creative idiom.^[41]

The site of Devnimori included numerous terra cotta Buddhist sculptures (but no stone sculptures), which are amongst the primeval sculptures that can exist establish in Gujarat.^[42] The manner is clearly influenced by the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.^[43]

The Indo-Scythian Western Satraps (1st century AD-405 AD may have played a part in the manual of the art of Gandhara to the western Deccan region, equally may also have the southern expansion of the Alchon Huns in the sixth-7th century.^[41]

Art of the Gupta [edit]

Buddha of the Gupta menstruation, 5th century, Mathura.

Caput of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century.

The fine art of Mathura acquired progressively more Indian elements and reached a very high sophistication during the Gupta Empire, between the fourth and the sixth century Advertising. The fine art of the Gupta is considered as the final height of Indian art, although the Gupta dynasty were Hindu, and Buddhism was now in decline in India.

Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the statuary and the folds of the habiliment, but are improved upon with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pinkish sandstone. Artistic details tend to be less realistic, equally seen in the symbolic trounce-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha.

Expansion in Central Asia [edit]

Greco-Buddhist artistic influences naturally followed Buddhism in its expansion to Key and Eastern asia from the 1st century BC.

Bactria [edit]

Bactria was under direct Greek control for more than than two centuries from the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC to the end of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom around 125 BC. The art of Bactria was almost perfectly Hellenistic as shown by the archaeological remains of Greco-Bactrian cities such as Alexandria on the Oxus (Ai-Khanoum), or the numismatic art of the Greco-Bactrian kings, frequently considered as the best of the Hellenistic world, and including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted by the Greeks.

When Buddhism expanded in Central Asia from the 1st century AD, Bactria saw the results of the Greco-Buddhist syncretism arrive on its territory from India, and a new alloy of sculptural representation remained until the Islamic invasions.

The most striking of these realizations are the Buddhas of Bamyan. They tend to vary between the fifth and the 9th century Advertising. Their manner is strongly inspired by Hellenistic civilisation.

In another expanse of Bactria called Fondukistan, some Greco-Buddhist fine art survived until the 7th century in Buddhist monasteries, displaying a strong Hellenistic influence combined with Indian decorativeness and mannerism, and some influence by the Sasanid Persians.

Most of the remaining fine art of Bactria was destroyed from the 5th century onward: the Buddhists were often blamed for idolatry and tended to be persecuted past the iconoclastic Muslims. Destructions continued during the Afghanistan War, and especially past the Taliban regime in 2001. The almost famous case is that of the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan. Ironically, most of the remaining art from Afghanistan however extant was removed from the state during the Colonial period. In item, a rich collection exists at the Musee Guimet in France.

Tarim Basin [edit]

Head of a Bodhisattva, sixth-7th century terracotta, Tumshuq (Xinjiang).

The art of the Tarim Basin, likewise called Serindian art, is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century in Serindia or Xinjiang, the western region of China that forms function of Central Asia. It derives from the art of the Gandhara and clearly combines Indian traditions with Greek and Roman influences. Buddhist missionaries travelling on the Silk Route introduced this art, along with Buddhism itself, into Serindia, where it mixed with Chinese and Persian influences.

Influences in East asia [edit]

The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist artistic influences, but tended to add together many local elements as well. What remains most readily identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art are:

• The full general idealistic realism of the figures reminiscent of Greek art.
• Wearable elements with elaborate Greek-fashion folds.
• The curly hairstyle feature of the Mediterranean.
• In some Buddhist representations, hovering winged figures holding a wreath.
• Greek sculptural elements such as vines and floral scrolls.

China [edit]

Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya, AD 443.

Greco-Buddhist artistic elements can be traced in Chinese Buddhist fine art, with several local and temporal variations depending on the character of the various dynasties that adopted the Buddhist faith. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in Mainland china are small statues on "money trees", dated circa AD 200, in typical Gandharan style: "That the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this "coin tree" Buddha as the loftier ushnisha, vertical system of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the artillery."^[44]

Some Northern Wei statues can be quite reminiscent of Gandharan continuing Buddha, although in a slightly more than symbolic style. The general attitude and rendering of the clothes however remain. Other, similar Northern Qi Dynasty statues too maintain the general Greco-Buddhist style, just with less realism and stronger symbolic elements.

Some Eastern Wei statues display Buddhas with elaborate Greek-mode robe foldings, and surmounted by flying figures property a wreath.

Japan [edit]

A Buddha in Kamakura (1252), reminiscent of Greco-Buddhist influences.

In Japan, Buddhist fine art started to develop as the state converted to Buddhism in AD 548. Some tiles from the Asuka period, the first menses following the conversion of the country to Buddhism, display a strikingly classical style, with ample Hellenistic dress and realistically rendered body shape characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art.

Other works of art incorporated a variety of Chinese and Korean influences, and so that Japanese Buddhism became extremely varied in its expression. Many elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day however, such every bit the Hercules inspiration behind the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in Kamakura.^[45]

Iconographical evolution of the Wind God.
Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, 2nd century.
Centre: air current god from Kizil, Tarim Bowl, 7th century.
Right: Japanese wind god Fujin, 17th century.

Various other Greco-Buddhist artistic influences can be constitute in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon, the most striking of which existence that of the Japanese wind god Fujin. In consistency with Greek iconography for the air current god Boreas, the Japanese wind god holds above his head with his 2 easily a draping or "wind bag" in the same full general attitude.^[46] The affluence of pilus take been kept in the Japanese rendering, also equally exaggerated facial features.

Some other Buddhist deity, named Shukongoshin, one of the wrath-filled protector deities of Buddhist temples in Japan, is also an interesting example of transmission of the epitome of the famous Greek god Herakles to East asia along the Silk Road. Herakles was used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, and his representation was then used in China and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples.^[47]

Temple tiles from Nara, 7th century.

Vine and grape scrolls from Nara, 7th century.

Finally, the creative inspiration from Greek floral scrolls is constitute quite literally in the ornamentation of Japanese roof tiles, one of the simply remaining elements of wooden architecture to take survived the centuries. The clearest ones are from 7th century Nara temple building tiles, some of them exactly depicting vines and grapes. These motifs have evolved towards more symbolic representations, but essentially remain to this day in many Japanese traditional buildings.^[48]

Influences on Southeast Asian art [edit]

The Indian civilization proved very influential on the cultures of Southeast Asia. Most countries adopted Indian writing and culture, together with Hinduism and Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.

The influence of Greco-Buddhist art is notwithstanding visible in most of the representation of the Buddha in Southeast Asia, through their idealism, realism and details of wearing apparel, although they tend to intermix with Indian Hindu art, and they progressively acquire more local elements.

Cultural significance [edit]

Beyond stylistic elements which spread throughout Asia for close to a millennium, the main contribution of Greco-Buddhist art to the Buddhist faith may be in the Greek-inspired idealistic realism which helped describe in a visual and immediately understandable manner the state of personal bliss and enlightenment proposed past Buddhism. The communication of deeply human arroyo of the Buddhist organized religion, and its accessibility to all take probably benefited from the Greco-Buddhist creative syncretism.^{[ according to whom? ]}

Museums [edit]

Major collections [edit]

• Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan (largest drove in the world).
• Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan.
• Taxila Museum, Taxila, Pakistan.
• National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi, Islamic republic of pakistan.
• Indian Museum, Kolkata, Westward Bengal, Bharat (largest collection in India).
• Authorities Museum and Fine art Gallery, Chandigarh, India (627 artifacts; 2d largest in Bharat).
• Mathura Museum, Mathura, India.
• Musée Guimet, Paris, French republic (well-nigh 150 artifacts, largest drove exterior of Asia.)^[49]
• British Museum, London, Great United kingdom (about 100 artifacts), such every bit Seated Buddha from Gandhara
• Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo, Japan (about 50 artifacts)
• National Museum of Oriental Art, Rome, Italy (about 80 artifacts)
• Museum of Asian Fine art, Dahlem, Berlin, Germany.

Small collections [edit]

• Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, United States
• Aboriginal Orient Museum, Tokyo, Nihon (About 20 artifacts)
• Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Great Britain (About 30 artifacts)
• City Museum of Ancient Fine art in Palazzo Madama, Turin, Italia.
• Rubin Museum of Art in New York Urban center, NY, United States.
• National Museum, New Delhi, India

Private collections [edit]

• Drove de Marteau, Brussels, Kingdom of belgium.

Timeline and influence of Greco-Buddhist art
Periods	Northern Asia	Central Asia	Gandhara	India	Southeast Asia
5th century BCE				Nascency of Buddhism
quaternary century BCE		Occupation by Alexander the Great (330 BCE)
3rd-2nd century BCE		Seleucid Empire (300-250BCE) ---------- Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250-125 BCE) (Hellenistic art)	Mauryan Empire (321-185 BCE) (Aniconic art)		Introduction of Buddhism to Myanmar
2nd-1st century BCE	China, Han dynasty First mention of Buddhist statues brought from Fundamental Asia (120 BCE)		Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 CE) Buddhist symbolism and proselytism Free-standing Buddhas (Foucher &al.)	Shunga Empire (185-73 BCE)
1st century BCE		Yuezhi Nomadic invaders, who became Hellenized and propagated Buddhism		Indo-Scythians (80-twenty CE)
1st century CE	Official start of Buddhism in China. Arrival of statues of the Buddha in 70 CE.		Indo-Parthians	Art of Mathura
1st-tertiary century CE	First known Buddha statues in China (later on Han, c.200 CE)	Kushan Empire (ten-350 CE)
4th-6th century CE	Tarim Basin Red china Start of Buddhism in Japan	Bactria	Gupta Empire (320-550 CE)		Mahayana Buddhism in Siam, Cambodia and Vietnam
seventh-13th century CE	Japan	Islamic invasions		Pala Empire (11th century)	Southeast Asia Introduction of Theravada from Sri Lanka in the 11th century

Come across likewise [edit]

• Buddhist fine art
• Greco-Buddhism
• Alphabetize of Buddhism-related articles
• History of Buddhism

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} "The fine art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art". Choice Reviews Online. 45 (four): 45–1823-45-1823. 2007-12-01. doi:x.5860/choice.45-1823. ISSN 0009-4978.
2. ^ Chicken, forty, 70, 84; Harle, 126
3. ^ Chicken, 100-101; Harle, 84
4. ^ Acri, Andrea (20 Dec 2018). "Maritime Buddhism". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638. ISBN9780199340378. Archived from the original on xix Feb 2019. Retrieved thirty May 2021.
5. ^ Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula. Oxford Academy Press.
6. ^ Narain, A.K. (1976). The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek Kings, 256-54 B.C. Ares. ISBN0-89005-109-7.
7. ^ Stier, Hans Erich; Kirsten, Ernst; Aner, Ekkehard (1978). Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Vorzeit, Altertum, Mittelalter, Neuzeit. Georg Westermann Verlag. ISBNthree-14-100919-8.
8. ^ Rowland, 125-128
9. ^ The title, for instance, of Rowland's "Part 3".
10. ^ Rowland, 126
11. ^ Harle, 82-83; Rowland, 126
12. ^ Rowland, 121
13. ^ Rowland, 122, 126
14. ^ Harle, 84; Craven, 97
15. ^ "Mauryan Period and the Rise of Buddhism | Asian Art History".
16. ^ ^{a b} Leidy, Denise Patry (2008). The Fine art of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its History & Pregnant. Shambhala Publications. ISBN978-1-59030-594-2.
17. ^ the "pilaster capitals with Greek florals and a form which is of Greek origin (though more often than not described as Farsi) get dorsum to Late Primitive."in "The Diffusion of Classical Fine art in Antiquity" John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p.110
18. ^ Greek Gods in the East, Stančo, Ladislav, Charles Academy in Prague, Karolinum Press, 2012 p.167
19. ^ "Gandhara palette: The so-called palettes or 'toilet trays' of the late second century BC and the first century AD depicting Classical scenes" in The Monuments of Transitional islamic state of afghanistan: History, Archaeology and Compages, Warwick Ball, I. B. Tauris, 2008, p.115
20. ^ "In that location is evidence of Hellensitic sculptors being in touch on with Sanchi and Bharhut" in The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.9
21. ^ ^{a b c} The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Evolution, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, p.17-18 Notation three
22. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilisation, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 p.170
23. ^ ^{a b c d} An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archæology, past Amalananda Ghosh, BRILL p.295
24. ^ ^{a b c} Buddhist Architecture Huu Phuoc Le Grafikol, 2010 p.161
25. ^ ^{a b c} Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, past Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p.90
26. ^ Buddhist Landscapes in Primal Bharat: Sanchi Colina and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to 5th Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 p.88ff
27. ^ An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) p.171
28. ^ ^{a b} The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press, p.115
29. ^ ^{a b} "These fiddling balusters are of considerable interest, as their sculptured statues are much superior in artistic design and execution to those of the railing pillars. They are further remarkable in having Arian letters engraved on their bases or capitals, a peculiarity which points unmistakably to the employment of Western artists, and which fully accounts for the superiority of their execution. The messages found are p, s, a, and b, of which the first three occur twice. At present, if the aforementioned sculptors had been employed on the railings, we might confidently await to find the same alphabetical letters used as individual marks. Simply the fact is only the reverse, for the whole of the 27 marks found on whatever portions of the railing are Indian messages. The only determination that I can come up to from these facts is that the foreign artists who were employed on the sculptures of the gateways were certainly not engaged on any part of the railing. I conclude, therefore, that the Raja of Sungas, the donor of the gateways, must have sent his own political party of workmen to make them, while the smaller gifts of pillars and rail were executed by the local artists." in The stūpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist legend and history in the third century B. C, by Alexander Cunningham p. 8 (Public Domain)
30. ^ ^{a b} Buddhist Compages, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 p.149ff
31. ^ Ashoka: The Search for India'south Lost Emperor, Charles Allen, Hachette UK, 2012 p.122
32. ^ Buddhist Architecture past Huu Phuoc Le p.161
33. ^ Tarzi, Zémaryalai. "Le site ruiné de Hadda": 62 ff.
34. ^ "Tepe Shotor Tableau. Hadda, Nangarhar Province. ACKU Images Arrangement". ackuimages.photoshelter.com.
35. ^ Vajrapani-Herakles:Image Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine
36. ^ "The origin of the epitome of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled subsequently that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and Cathay and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio)." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-Due west cultural contacts from Greece to Nihon", p23)
37. ^ "In Gandhara the appearance of a halo surrounding an unabridged figure occurs simply in the latest phases of creative product, in the 5th and sixth centuries. By this time in Afghanistan the halo/mandorla had become quite mutual and is the format that took hold at Central Asian Buddhist sites." in "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
38. ^ Ann Heirman; Stephan Peter Bumbacher (eleven May 2007). The Spread of Buddhism. Leiden: BRILL. p. sixty. ISBN978-90-474-2006-4.
39. ^ The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume four 1981 Number I An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā
40. ^ ^{a b} Schastok, Sara L. (1985). The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western Republic of india. BRILL. pp. 28–31. ISBN9004069410.
41. ^ ^{a b} Brancaccio, Pia (2010). The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion. BRILL. p. 107. ISBN978-9004185258.
42. ^ Schastok, Sara L. (1985). The Śāmalājī Sculptures and sixth Century Art in Western India. BRILL. pp. 24–27. ISBN9004069410.
43. ^ The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume iv 1981 Number I An Infrequent Grouping of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note two
44. ^ "Crossroads of Asia" p209
45. ^ "Needless to say, the influence of Greek fine art on Japanese Buddhist fine art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy mantle of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-Westward cultural contacts from Hellenic republic to Nihon", p19)
46. ^ "The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a carve up tradition autonomously from that of their Western counter-parts but share the aforementioned origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern air current god images is the current of air bag held by this god with both easily, the origin of which can be traced dorsum to the shawl or mantle worn by Boreas/ Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Corking, East-West cultural contacts from Hellenic republic to Nihon", p21)
47. ^ "The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled afterward that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and Prc and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio)." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Slap-up, East-Westward cultural contacts from Greece to Nippon", p23)
48. ^ The transmission of the floral scroll pattern from West to E is presented in the regular exhibition of Ancient Japanese Fine art, at the Tokyo National Museum.
49. ^ "Musee Guimet and the Greek Buddhas of Gandhara". Minor Sights. 6 April 2014. Retrieved 2015-04-30 .

References [edit]

• John Boardman, The Improvidence of Classical Art in Antiquity (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-691-03680-2
• Craven, Roy C., Indian Art: A Concise History, 1987, Thames & Hudson (Praeger in Usa), ISBN 0500201463
• Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road 2nd edition (Palgrave Macmilla, 2010) ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1
• Harle, J.C., The Art and Compages of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale Academy Printing Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
• Sir John Marshall, The Buddhist art of Gandhara, 1960, ISBN 81-215-0967-X
• Michell, George (2000), Hindu Art and Architecture, 2000, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0500203378
• Rowland, Benjamin, The Fine art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (third edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, ISBN 0140561021
• Gauranga Nath Banerjee, Hellenism in ancient India (Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal., 1961) ISBN 0-8364-2910-nine
• Jerry H. Bentley, Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modernistic times (Oxford University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-19-507639-7
• Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Hellenic republic to Japan (NHK and Tokyo National Museum, 2003)
• Due west.W. Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India Cambridge University Press
• Robert Linssen, Living Zen (Grove Press New York, 1958) ISBN 0-8021-3136-0
• Marian Wenzel, Echoes of Alexander the Great: Silk road portraits from Gandhara (Eklisa Anstalt, 2000) ISBN ane-58886-014-0
• The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Prototype and Symbol, 1992, ISBN 0-9518399-ane-8

Further reading [edit]

• Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin Country Museums . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art. 1982. ISBN9780870993008.
• Ihsan Ali and Muhammad Naeem Qazi, Gandharan Sculptures in Peshawar Museum, Hazara Academy, Mansehra.
• Alfred Foucher, 1865-1952; Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, 50'art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra : étude sur les origines de 50'influence classique dans l'art bouddhique de l'Inde et de l'Extrême-Orient (1905), Paris : East. Leroux.

External link [edit]

• Media related to Greco-Buddhist art at Wikimedia Eatables

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art